Military History

Today we recognize those who have served in the United States’ armed forces.

The United States Marine Corps Marks 246 years of service. 

Colin Powell’s extraordinary career as a soldier-statesman provides a model for how to live one’s life in the public arena at a time few such models can be found.

The U.S. Navy marks 246 years of service.

The United States Air Force marks seventy-four years of service.

Every summer Friday, we suggest foreign-policy-themed movies worth watching. This week: films inspired by actual heroes. 

The United States Coast Guard marks 231 years of service. 

The United States Army celebrates its 246th birthday today. If you see an active duty, former, or retired member of the United States Army today, wish their service Happy Birthday.  The Army provides a short but thorough overview of its history on its website. Here are five things worth knowing:  The Army is the oldest of the six services. It was created on June 14, 1775, making it four months older than the United States Navy, five months older than the United States Marine Corps, five years older than the United States Coast Guard, 172 years older than the United States Air Force (which began as part of the Army), and 244 years older than the United States Space Force (which was spun out of Air Force Space Command).  Eleven Army generals have gone on to become president of the United States: George Washington (General), Andrew Jackson (Major General), William Henry Harrison (Major General), Zachary Taylor (Major General), Franklin Pierce (Brigadier General), Andrew Johnson (Brigadier General), Ulysses S. Grant (General), Rutherford B. Hayes (Major General, Brevet), James A. Garfield (Major General, Volunteers), Benjamin Harrison (Major General, Brevet), and Dwight D. Eisenhower (General). No Navy Admiral, Marine Corps General, or Air Force General has ever been elected president. (Chester A. Arthur was Quartermaster General of the New York State Militia at the start of the Civil War, but I don’t believe he was mustered into federal service.)  The highest rank in the Army is General of the Armies of the United States. Only two men have held it: George Washington and John Pershing. Efforts to give General Douglas MacArthur the title failed. Washington got his title posthumously on July 4, 1976. During his lifetime, the highest rank he achieved was Lieutenant General. President Ford issued the executive order elevating Washington to six-star status because given the military’s strict hierarchy he was technically outranked by the four- and five-star generals who came after him. President Ford’s executive order directs that Washington shall always be considered the most senior U. S. military officer.  The Medal of Honor has been awarded to a member of the Army 2,458 times. Put differently, approximately 70 percent of all 3,527 Medals of Honor awarded have gone to Soldiers.  There are roughly 482,000 active duty Army personnel.     I asked Colonel Mark G. Kappelmann, an active duty U.S. Army officer who spent the past year as a military fellow at CFR, for his recommendations on what to read to learn more about the Army. Here are his recommendations:  James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1997). For Cause and Comrades won the 1998 Lincoln Prize, an honor given by Gettysburg College for “the finest scholarly work in English on Abraham Lincoln, the American Civil War soldier, or a subject relating to that era.” The author had access to 25,000 letters and 250 private diaries from Union and Confederate Soldiers. If you want to learn about the Army, and you want to learn about Soldiers, there may be no better record. The War Stories Their Families Never Forgot (2018). This piece is a short read well suited for Paul Harvey or NPR. My goal in recommending it is to remind everyone that Soldiers are citizens. They are ordinary Americans who are often thrust into extraordinary circumstances. T.R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War: The Classic Military History of the Korean War (1963). The author served in the Army during the Korean War, but doesn’t mention it in this book. Fehrenbach’s service may have provided the frame of reference that is admired by so many readers — fellow authors, politicians, historians, and military officers alike. Senator John McCain called this book “perhaps the best book ever written on the Korean War.” Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (1994). Jonathan Shay is a doctor and a clinical psychiatrist who worked for the United States Department of Veterans' Affairs Outpatient Clinic in Boston. He is one of the foremost experts in the country concerning posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Once again, if you want to learn about Soldiers, this is invaluable insight into the price paid when sending young women and men off to war. Col. Kappelmann also recommended five films to watch: Glory (1989). While a tribute to the 37,000 Black Soldiers who died in Union uniform, Glory does not ignore the racism and inequality that existed in the ranks. Patton (1971). This biographical film about General George S. Patton Jr. featured a masterful performance by George C. Scott. He famously turned down the Oscar for Best Actor. From Here to Eternity (1953). This movie follows the lives of three Soldiers, stationed in Hawaii, during the months before the attack on Pearl Harbor. The Best Supporting Actor Oscar went to none other than Mr. Frank Sinatra, a catalyst for his career revival. The Best Years of Our Lives (1946). The Best Years of Our Lives follows the lives of three U.S. servicemen as they adjust to civilian life after World War II. This film touches on issues such as substance abuse, PTSD, physical disability, and other issues our servicemen suffer from when they return home. This film would be well-paired with my book recommendation, Achilles in Vietnam. Saving Private Ryan (1998). If you have the slightest interest in either World War II or D-Day, this movie is a must. Widely considered to be one of the greatest films ever made, Saving Private Ryan had a tremendous influence on the film industry and even on the video game market. Like the three films listed above, it is preserved in the National Film Registry. Anna Shortridge assisted in the preparation of this post.

As 2020 comes to a close, here are ten notable historical anniversaries to mark in 2021.

Today is Veterans Day. Americans first celebrated it on November 11, 1919, one year to the day after the end of the conflict they knew as the Great War and we (regrettably) know today as World War I. President Woodrow Wilson issued a message proclaiming the first celebration of “Armistice Day.” The holiday was meant to show “gratitude for victory” in World War I and solemn pride “for those that died in our country’s service.” On that day, all business was suspended for two minutes starting at 11:00 a.m. and parades and public gatherings commemorated the war’s end. The choice of time was deliberate. The agreement ending World War I went into effect on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918. Over the years, the practice of celebrating Armistice Day spread and states began making it a legal holiday. Congress followed suit in 1938, declaring that the November 11 holiday was “dedicated to the cause of world peace and to be hereafter celebrated and known as ‘Armistice Day.’” In 1954, with World War II and the Korean War having greatly expanded the number of Americans who had fought overseas, Congress renamed Armistice Day “Veterans Day.” In a proclamation marking the renamed holiday, President Dwight D. Eisenhower said the change “expanded the significance of the commemoration” by “paying homage to the veterans of all wars.” You might wonder why the holiday is spelled “Veterans Day” and not “Veteran’s Day.” The choice is deliberate. The Department of Veterans Affairs states that the apostrophe is unnecessary "because it is not a day that ‘belongs’ to veterans, it is a day for honoring all veterans." You might also wonder how Veterans Day differs from Memorial Day other than coming after summer’s end rather than near its start. Veterans Day honors everyone who has served in the U.S. military. Memorial Day pays tribute to those men and women who died in military service. Roughly 17.4 million Americans today are veterans. That number is down from 28 million in 1990, which reflects the passing of the World War II and Korean War generations and the shift to an all-volunteer military. Women account for roughly 9 percent (1.6 million) of all veterans. That percentage is expected to double over the next two decades. Just eight percent of adult-aged Americans are veterans. The price of service in the U.S. military can be high. More than 1.1 million American service members have died during wartime. The Civil War remains the deadliest of America’s wars, with estimates of the death toll ranging from 500,000 to 750,000. World War II is the second deadliest conflict, with 405,000 Americans killed. The wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have left 2,313 and 4,418 and servicemen and women dead respectively. Some 4.7 million veterans today have a service-connected disability. To all of America’s veterans, thank you for your service. Anna Shortridge assisted in the preparation of this post.

The U.S. Marine Corps turns 245 years-old today. On November 10, 1775, the Continental Congress adopted a resolution to create a Marine force composed of two battalions. Since then, the Marines have been “from the halls of Montezuma to the shores of Tripoli” and many other places as well.  You probably know that the Marines’ motto is Semper Fidelis, or Semper Fi for short. It means “always faithful” in Latin. It signifies a Marine’s loyalty both to the U.S. Marine Corps and to the United States. However, Semper Fi didn’t become the Marines’ motto until 1883. During its first century of existence, the Marines had a few unofficial mottos. These included “to the shores of Tripoli,” which commemorates the Marines’ service in the First Barbary War, Fortitudine (meaning “with courage”), and Per Mare, Per Terram (“by sea and by land”), which the Marines borrowed from the British Royal Marines.  No Marine has ever become president, but several have made it in politics. Former Secretary of Defense James Mattis and former White House Chief of Staff John F. Kelly were both U.S. Marine Corps generals. U.S. Secretaries of State James A. Baker and George P. Shultz, Senator John Glenn (who first gained fame as an astronaut), and legendary political consultant James Carville also served in the Marines. Several baseball hall-of-famers are veterans of the Marines, including Rod Carew, Roberto Clemente, Eddie Collins, Bill Veeck, and the incomparable Ted Williams. Marines who made it in Hollywood include Gene Hackman, Harvey Keitel, Lee Marvin, Steve McQueen, and George C. Scott. Comedians Drew Carey and Rob Riggle were Marines, as was the late, great Jonathan Winters. If you are old enough to remember Captain Kangaroo (Bob Keeshan), he was a Marine. Several famous musicians served in the Marines, including country legend George Jones, hip-hop artist Shaggy, and “The March King,” John Philip Sousa. Marines who made it in the business world include Tom Bell (Taco Bell), Tom Monaghan (Dominos), Bob Parsons (GoDaddy.com), and Fred Smith (FedEx).  The Marines are the smallest of the four U.S. armed services in the U.S. Department of Defense, with roughly 182,000 active-duty personnel deployed around the world. To put the size of the Marine Corps in perspective, the U.S. Army is more than two-and-a-half times larger with 486,000 troops. But compared to most of the world’s militaries the Marines are a giant. Countries that have armies smaller than the Marines include France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan.  I asked Colonel Walker M. Field, a Marine Corps officer spending a year as a visiting military fellow in CFR’s David Rockefeller Studies Program, to recommend reading for those wanting to learn more about the Marines. Here are Col. Field’s suggestions.  Mark Bowden, Hue 1968: A Turning Point of the American War in Vietnam (2017). “Hue 1968 is the Tet Offensive story. Derived from interviews of those who were there, Hue relives the day-to-day urban battle, including, among the many units that fought in this epic urban battle, a focus on the exploits of 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines. 2/5 was led by Lt. Col. Earnie Cheatham, a strapping NFL lineman before departing for Marine Corps service in Vietnam. Cheatham is credited with devising the urban warfare strategy that led to retaking of Hue City.”  James Bradley and Ron Powers, Flags of Our Fathers (2000). “This New York Times bestseller tells the story of the six Marines made famous by Joe Rosenthal’s photograph of the U.S.-flag raising over Mt. Suribachi. In February 1945, Marines landed at Iwo Jima and battled to the top of Mt. Suribachi, a daunting 550-foot vertical climb that is tough enough in loose volcanic gravel, much less under constant machine gun and artillery fire. Having climbed Suribachi myself, I can’t fathom the sheer will and courage it took for those young Marines and sailors to scale such a daunting objective. Once atop the mountain, they raised a flag as an indicator to the fleet and those on the beach that Suribachi had been taken. Bradley captures the essence of this historic moment and the intense close combat in his gripping tale of a critically important World War II battle.”   Burke Davis, Marine!: The Life of Chesty Puller (1962). “Davis provides a riveting account of arguably the Corps’ most accomplished combat leader, Chesty Puller. A five-time Navy Cross winner, Puller fought in the Banana Wars, commanded Horse Marines in China, led Marines in the treacherous battles of Guadalcanal and Peleliu, and fought his way out of an encircled frozen Chosin Reservoir in the Korean War. He will be forever revered as one of the most accomplished combat warriors in our Corps’ history. If you are unfamiliar with Chesty Puller and love our Corps, this is a must read.”     Col. Field also recommended three films:  Flying Leathernecks (1951). “This film was directed by Nicholas Ray, and stars John Wayne and Robert Ryan. Ryan, a college boxer, was said to have been cast opposite John Wayne because he was thought to be the only actor who could, as Ray puts it, ‘kick Wayne's ass.’ John Wayne plays Major Kirby, a focused, hard-nosed squadron commander during the battle for Guadalcanal. The character was inspired by real World War II flying ace, Maj. John L. Smith, who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his missions over Guadalcanal in 1942.”  A Few Good Men (1992). “Nominated for four Oscars, this Rob Reiner film features Tom Cruise, Jack Nicholson, Demi Moore, and Kevin Bacon. I’m reluctant to recommend any film that leaves even the slightest residue of negativity about the Corps, even if wholly fictional, but this is an exceptional movie save for the sensationalized, narcissistic commander (Nicholson). Lt. Junior Grade Kaffee (Cruise) defends two young Marine security guards being court-martialed for the murder of a third Marine. Ultimately, it’s uncovered that the two Marines are scapegoats for the commander whose unorthodox and inappropriate leadership style underscored a caustic command climate.”  Taking Chance (2009). “An HBO film directed by Ross Katz, Taking Chance is a true story based on the written account of Marine Lt. Col. Michael Strobl, who is played by Kevin Bacon. Nearing retirement and having not deployed to Iraq, Lt. Col. Strobel volunteered to escort the body of a fallen Marine, Private First-Class Chance Phelps, back from Iraq to his hometown of Dubois, Wyoming. Katz does a fine job of apolitically conveying the impact of this wartime loss to our nation and to Phelps’ family, without casting any judgement or offering an opinion on the Iraq War. At the time of its release, the film was the most-watched HBO original in five years; for his efforts, Bacon won a Golden Globe.”  If you want to know what all Marines are required to read, the U.S. Marine Corps has posted its reading list online. Marines.com also has a great timeline of the history of the Marines.  A tip of the TWE cap to all the men and women who have worn the uniform of the U.S. Marine Corps.  Anna Shortridge assisted in the preparation of this post.